Grammar, Logic and Rhetoric: the Trivium

This article discusses the intellectual benefits of a “liberal arts” education focused on its three foundational elements: grammar, logic and rhetoric and reviews ways in which the skills learned by studying “the Trivium” could benefit regulatory professionals in carrying out their tasks.

Introduction

The term “liberal arts” denotes the seven branches of knowledge that provide an introduction to a lifetime of learning. The concept is classical, but the term liberal arts and the division of the arts into the Trivium and Quadrivium* date to the Middle Ages. The Trivium, the subject of this article, includes the aspects pertaining to the mind. It is commonly called the "Arts of the World" and focuses on various ways an individual can attend to words.¹ The Trivium is the instrument of all education at all levels because logic, grammar and rhetoric are the arts of communication themselves in that they govern the means of communication—namely, reading, writing, speaking and listening. Thinking is inherent in these four activities. Reading and listening, for example, although relatively passive, involve active thinking, for which we agree or disagree with what we read or hear.²

Sacred texts often refer to logic, grammar and rhetoric as knowledge, understanding and wisdom. Logic is the art of thinking; grammar, the art of inventing symbols and combining them to express thought; and rhetoric, the art of communicating thought from one mind to another, the adaptation of language to circumstances.³ Grammar is used in logic, which is used in rhetoric. Grammar asks: when is a sentence correct? Logic asks: when is a sentence true and rhetoric asks: which is the right sentence?⁴ Logic, grammar and rhetoric are essential tools and prerequisites for regulatory professionals. All three move toward a proper presentation of factual information, a prerequisite for premarket submissions and record keeping provisions of the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act. Truth—the integrity of data—is the very essence of the regulatory profession.⁵ Presenting false or not verifiable information is an anathema, a lifelong loss of trust and resultant legal and social penalties.

Logic

Shamefully, the last time I checked, except for philosophy majors, few if any colleges were teaching courses dedicated to logic or rhetoric. (Grammar, fortunately, is still taught.) The general concept of the Trivium has been quietly removed from the curriculum of public education over the last 100 years, although its concepts would provide the qualifications needed for employment in the medical or other fields, particularly work in regulatory affairs. Indeed, logic is the very backbone of a true education and the missing piece of the American educational system.⁵ From my experience as a supervisor and someone involved in hiring, the best employees are those possessing the ability to think logically. Logic is the pursuit of methods and principles used to distinguish correct from incorrect reasoning and has been defined as the systematic study of the standards of good reasoning. With logic, we learn how to acquire truths and to evaluate competing claims for truth. Using the methods and techniques of logic can distinguish between sound and faulty reasoning. The success of science rests on the ability to reason logically and every scientific method requires supporting logic.

Unfortunately, classical or modern logic is difficult to learn because it is fraught with syllogistic terms, symbols, quantification rules and inductive inferences. Modern logic is also a highly mathematical subject.⁶ There are, in addition, various forms of logic, including informal, formal, mathematical or symbolic. To make matters even more confusing, there are other categories, including syllogistical, propositional, predicate, modal, philosophical and computational. Fortunately, practical logic can be learned by watching DVDs from Great Courses or reading books, including those about thinking fast and slowly, inductive and deductive reasoning, scientific methods and problem solving. A good way to begin is by reading DQ McInerny's great little book, Being Logical.⁷

Rhetoric

Rhetoric, the other fundamental course, has a number of meanings—it has been defined as the study and practice of effective communication, the study of the effects of language on an audience and the art of persuasion. It can be thought of as the capacity to produce appropriate and effective language in any situation and to present the results of logical thinking. Rhetoric, like logic, was once an essential part of the liberal arts curriculum. Like logic, rhetoric can be learned from on line courses or books. A good way to start is with Richard Toye's Rhetoric—A Very Short Introduction.⁸ Understanding rhetoric can be useful when applying for a job, interviewing or writing a letter to gain admittance to a college or university. Rhetoric is a major component of the negotiating skills and required when dealing with FDA investigators, auditors, notified bodies or with panel members or governmental personnel responsible for premarket approvals.

Aristotle (384-322 BC), a Greek philosopher, is credited for discovering logic and other contributions to science and philosophy. He wrote the first known treatises of logical theory and began teaching the first logic classes in history. His courses covered the standards any reasoning must follow if it is to be good reasoning. His theory of the syllogism has had an unparalleled influence on the history of Western thought. Syllogisms are structures of sentences each of which can be meaningfully called true or false. According to Aristotle, every such sentence must have the same structure: it must contain a subject and a predicate and must either affirm or deny the predicate of the subject.⁹

Aristotle also taught rhetoric. His books on the subject are possibly the first works to be written on the subject and among the seminal works of Western philosophy. He focused on the use of language as both a vehicle and a tool to shape persuasive argument and emphasized the role of language in achieving precision and clarity of thought. Ancient philosophers regarded rhetoric as the crowning intellectual discipline—the synthesis of logical principles.

Applying Logic and Rhetoric

The ability to write a persuasive letter or to present a persuasive argument requires special skills, but many of us have not been taught all of the basic requirements. Fortunately, with regard to letters, there are instructions available on the Internet that can guide you on the format, including such obvious matters as including your name and address and the name and address of the person to whom you are writing. Internet sites also demonstrate the importance of being clear and concise and how to lay out valid argument points. This is the point where logical thinking is required and where the internet is of little use. However, there is hope for all of us. According to a recent article in Science, we all have the inherent ability to think logically—it may be deep in our developmental roots.¹⁰ Even pre-verbal infants appear to draw inferences about objects and causes. The study also indicated that one year olds can spontaneously reason using the process of elimination. Researchers have found that the infant's pupils dilated more when watching movies that required rational deductions, a phenomenon that occurs in adults during deductive reasoning as well. Just imagine how much better we can be with additional education and training.

Conclusion: Final Thoughts

This year, in an editorial in the Wall Street Journal, the author extolled the virtues of a good liberal arts education and its ability to enrich our lives.¹¹ In his mind, the pragmatic benefits of rhetorical ability, logical reasoning and business skills are the by-products, although he admits that logic can consist of dense, impenetrable jargon. However, that should not stop each of us from trying to understand the basics to help develop the ability to marshal cogent arguments in support of defensible positions and to express a viewpoint verbally and articulate it in writing. After all, such qualities are part of the critical thinking inherent with our profession.

*The Quadrivium includes arithmetic, music, geometry and astronomy, the theory of space.

References

Seven Liberal Arts of Classical Education. https://deamatronablog.wordpress.com/classical-education/. Accessed 20 September 2018.
Joseph Miriam. The Trivium: the Liberal Arts of Logic, Grammar and Rhetoric. (2012-04-23T23:58:59). (Kindle Locations 215-216). Paul Dry Books. Kindle Edition.
Mitchell J, et al, (Eds). Trivium: the Classical Liberal Arts of Grammar, Logic and Rhetoric. Bloomsbury Publishing, New York, 2017.
Op cit 1.
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C). FDA website. https://www.fda.gov/RegulatoryInformation/LawsEnforcedbyFDA/FederalFoodDrugandCosmeticActFDCAct/default.htm. Accessed 20 September 2018.
McInerny DQ. Being Logical. A Guide to Good Thinking. Random House Trade Paperbacks, New York, 2005
Priest G. Logic—a Very Short Introduction. 2nd Ed, Oxford University Press, Oxford UK, 2017
Op cit 6.
Toye R. Rhetoric—a Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, Oxford UK, 2013.
Copi IM and Cohen C: Introduction to Logic 13th Ed. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2009.
Cesana-Arlotti N, et al. “Precursors of logical reasoning in preverbal human infants.” Science, 2018; 359 (6381): 1263.
Zimm M. “If you want your child to succeed, don't sell liberal arts short.” WSJ, March 2, 2018.

About the Author

Max Sherman is a retired regulatory professional. He has contributed to Regulatory Focus for more than two decades and is the author of the recently published book entitled "Eclectic Science and Regulatory Compliance: Stories for the Curious." The book contains 36 essays, most of which appeared in Regulatory Focus. In 2012, RAPS published "From Alzheimer's to Zebrafish: Eclectic Science and Regulatory Stories." He is also the editor of the first (2015) and second (2018) editions of "The Medical Device Validation Handbook." He may be contacted at [email protected].

Cite as: Sherman M. “Grammar, Logic and Rhetoric: the Trivium.” Regulatory Focus. September 2018. Regulatory Affairs Professionals Society.

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